Glossary of Grammatical Terms

Accusative case: Form of a pronoun showing that the pronoun is the object of a verb or preposition: me, her, him, us, them, whom. Also called objective case.
Active voice: See Voice.
Adjective: Word or words used to modify a noun, pronoun, or verbal: good food, wonderful you, poor fishing.
Adjective clause: Subordinate clause used as adjective: Everyone icho approves should vote for him.
Adjective phrase: Phrase used as adjective: The woman in the red dress is beautiful.
Adverb: Word or words used to modify a verb, verbal, adjective, adverb, or entire clause or sentence: run quickly. to sit quietly, quite fresh, Naturally he was elected.
Adverbial clause: Subordinate clause used as adverb: John left whenever he felt like it.
Adverbial phrase: Phrase used as adverb: She sent her son to the store.
Antecedent: Word or words to which a pronoun refers: Alice (antecedent) asked for her (pronoun) dessert.
Apposition: Placement of a noun or noun substitute next to another to explain or identify it: New York, the Empire State: Richard the Lion Hearted. The Empire State and the Lion Hearted are known as appositives.
Article: A. an, and the are articles. Their function is to modify a noun or noun substitute. A and an are the indefinite articles. The is the definite article.
Auxiliary verb: Verb used with other verbs to form tense or voice: We should go to the movies. He was slaughtered.
Case: Form of a noun or pronoun to show function. The three cases are nominative (subjective), genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective). Nominative / saw. Genitive my hat.Accusative The dog bit me.
Clause: Group of words containing a subject and verb. Clauses are either dependent: The man who came to dinner left early; or independent: The milkman left two bottles of cream.
Collective noun: A noun that appears to be singular but refers to a group. Treated as singular when the group is thought of as a unit, treated as plural when the members of the group are considered individually.
Comparison: Inflection of adverbs or adjectives to show degrees of quality or amount.
Absolute: good. quickly. famous.
Comparative: better, quicker, more famous. Superlative: best, quickest, most famous.
Complement: Noun or adjective used to complete the meaning of a copulative verb. Also known as predicate complement: She is sick (predicate adjective). She is an opera star. (predicate noun).
Complex: Sentence containing one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
Compound sentence: Sentence containing two or more independent clauses.
Compound-complex sentence: Sentence containing two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
Conjunction: Word or words used to join words, phrases, or clauses. Coordinating conjunction joins elements of equal value. Subordinating conjunction joins dependent clauses to independent clauses.
Conjunctive adverb: Adverb used as conjunction. Most common examples are: however, thus, and therefore.
Coordinate: Of equal grammatical or syntactical importance: two nouns, two phrases, two clauses, etc.
Copulative verb: Verb that links a subject and its complement. Most common copulative verb is be. Also known as linking verb.
Demonstrative adjective: Adjective that indicates a particular noun or pronoun: this hat, that boat, this one.
Demonstrative pronoun: Pronoun that specifies a particular referent: this is what I want: that is too much.
Dependent clause: See Subordinate clause.
Descriptive adjective: Adjective that names the condition or quality of noun it modifies: green trees, wrecked wagon.
Direct address: Construction in which the writer addresses the reader directly: Paul, hand me the case. Ethel, leave the room.
Direct object: Word or words that receive the action of a verb: The speaker hit the table. He believed that the boy would return the book.
Gender: Of no consequence in English grammar. Refers to masculine, feminine, neuter nouns in certain other languages. Personal pronouns in English have gender in third person singular: he, she, it.
Genitive case: Form of a noun or pronoun to show possession: woman's, hour's, her, hers, his, their, etc. Also known as possessive case.
Gerund: ing form of a verb used as a noun or performing a noun function: Swimming is more fun than lying on the beach. They both love boating and fishing.Gerunds are verbals.
Imperative mood: Verb construction used in giving commands. The subject of the verb is usually lacking: Go home! Stop smoking!
Indefinite pronoun: Pronoun that does not specify a particular referent: any, anyone, each, everyone, etc.
Independent clause: Clause that can stand alone and convey meaning as a simple sentence: She was fond of all her .friends, although she loved no one in particular. Also known as main clause or principal clause.
Indicative mood: Form of verb used to make a statement or ask a question: She drives well. Is he baking bread?
Indirect object: Noun or pronoun receiving the direct object: They gave me a present. They gave a present to me.
Infinitive: Simple form of the verb, usually preceded by to: (to) run, (to) jump, (to) attempt. Infinitives function as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Infinitives are verbals.
Infinitive phrase: Infinitive plus its modifiers and object: to swim gracefully. to read a book . Infinitive phrases have the same functions as infinitives.
Inflection: Change in form to indicate grammatical relationships. Inflection of nouns and pronouns is known as declension. Inflection of verbs is known as conjugation. Inflection of adjectives and adverbs is known as comparison.
Intensive pronoun: Pronoun used to strengthen a noun or pronoun: the manager himself, you yourselves, the bee itself
Interjection: Ejaculatory word or expression: Alas, there's no more to eat. Heavens above, is there no shame in the man?
Interrogative adjective: Adjective used in asking question: whose book? which street?
Interrogative pronoun: Pronoun used in asking a question: whose was lost? which was stolen?
Intransitive verb: Verb that does not take an object: I smiled all day. She argues well. All copulative verbs are intransitive. Many verbs function transitively as well as intransitively.
Irregular verb: Verb that forms its past tense and past paniciple by a change of vowels: be. was, were.. run. ran, run; sing, sang, sung. Also known as strong verb.
Linking verb: See Copulative verb.
Modifier: Word or words that limit, describe, or make more precise the meaning of the words modified: blue hat, the man whom you saw, they walked silently.
Mood: Characteristic of a verb that shows the manner in which a statement is regarded by the writer. See Indicative mood, Imperative mood, and Subjunctive mood. Nominative case: See Subjective case.
Nonrestrictive modifier: Modifier of a word or group of words already limited or restricted: Jane's father, who rowed /or Yale, still rows every day. I brought him to my house, which is in Pittsburgh.
Noun: Name of a person, place, thing. quality, action, or idea. Nouns function as subjects, objects, objects of prepositions, objects of verbals, and as adjectives.
Noun phrase: Phrase that functions as a noun: afternoon tea, the train to Denver.
Number: Singular and plural aspects of nouns, pronouns, and verbs.
Numerical adjective: Adjective that numbers the word it modifies: six Indians, firm anniversary.
Objective case: See Accusative case.
Parallel construction: Repetition of grammatjcal construction for coherence and emphasis: flying and swimming; I came. I saw. I conquered.
Participle: Adjective form of a verb. Present participle ends in ing: running, walking.Past participle ends in ed if the verb is regular, changes a vowel if the verb is irregular: walked, talked; run, eaten. Participles are verbals.
Passive voice: See Voice.
Person: Forms of verbs and pronouns to indicate person speaking: / am first person; person spoken to: you are second person; person spoken of: he is third person.
Personal pronoun: Pronoun used to indicate people: I. you, he, she, etc. I saw her.
Possessive adjective: Adjective used to indicate possession: my, your. his, her, hers, its. etc. Our hats, his typewriter.
Possessive case: See Genitive case.
Predicate: In a clause or sentence, the verb with its modifiers, object, complement, or indirect object.
Predicate adjective: See Complement.
Predicate complement: See Complement
Predicate noun: See Complement.
Preposition: A word or words that convey a meaning of position, direction, time, or other abstraction. Together with a noun or pronoun and its modifiers, it forms a prepositional phrase, which serves as a modifier: to the front, from the shore, with them. In these prepositional phrases, front, shore, and them function as objects of prepositions.
Principal parts of a verb: The infinitive (look), past tense (looked), and past participle (looked).
Pronoun: A word that takes the place of a noun:!, it, etc. See Antecedent.
Proper adjective: Adjective formed from a proper noun: Italian restaurant, American history.
Proper noun: Name of a specific person, place, or thing: Elizabeth, Finland, Soldiers and Sailors Monument,
Reciprocal pronoun: Each other and one another. Used only as the object of a verb or preposition: They saw each other regularly. We spoke to one another yesterday.
Regular verb: Verb that forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed: worked, worked; talked, talked. Also known as weak verb.
Relative adjective: Limiting adjective introducing subordinate clause: The bookseller whose store burned is despondent.
Relative pronoun: Pronoun introducing subordinate clause: The man who hired you has been promoted. The book that you gave me is missing.
Restrictive modifier: Modifier that limits or restricts a word or group of words: Henry the Eighth. the man who worked for you.
Sentence: Group of words normally containing a subject and predicate, expressing an assertion, question, command, wish, or exclamation.
Strong verb: See Irregular verb.
Subject: Element in a sentence performing the action indicated by an active verb: element in a sentence receiving the action of a passive verb: Jane saw her sister. She was received in court. Infinitives may also take subjects: Mother asked him to return home.
Subjective case: Form of pronoun showing that the pronoun is the subject of a verb: I. she, he. Ire. they. who Also called nominative case.
Subjunctive mood: Form of verb used to express doubts, possibilities, desires, and conditions contrary to fact: I doubt that she will ever become chairperson. If he were here, this problem would vanish.
Subordinate clause: Sentence element consisting of a subject and predicate and functioning as a noun. adjective, or adverb: That he was fired is no surprise to me. The book you sent me never arrived. He wondered when he would hear of his appointment. A subordinate clause, also known as a dependent clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence.
Superlative: highest degree of comparison used when comparing three or more units: my best effort, the oldest child in the family, the smallest error. See Comparison.
Tense: Characteristic of verb forms that shows differences in time of action performed: I run, I ran, I will run. I will have run. etc.
Transitive verb: Verb that takes an object: She bought the car. Jack and Jill carried the water. See Intransitive verb: See Copulative verb.
Verb: Word or words used to express action or state of being of the subject: Anne studied hard. She is willing. They are going home. The family will have received notice by this time tomorrow.
Verbal: Word derived from a verb, but functioning as a noun or modifier. See Gerund. See Infinitive. See Participle.
Voice: Characteristic of verbs that differentiates between the subject as performer of the action of the verb (active voice) and the subject as receiver of the action of the verb (passive voice). Active voice: The lecturer emphasized her main points. Passive voice: The main points were emphasized by the lecturer.
Weak verb: See Regular verbs
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Climate change

British meteorologist George Hadley reached another fundamental
understanding of the factors that influence global climate
in the 18th century. Hadley proposed a simple,
convective type of circulation in the atmosphere, in which
heating by the Sun causes the air to rise near the equators and
move poleward, where the air sinks back to the near surface,
then returning to the equatorial regions. We now recognize a
slightly more complex situation, in that there are three main
convecting atmospheric cells in each hemisphere, named
Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells. These play very important
roles in the distribution of different climate zones, as moist or
rainy regions are located, in the Tropics and at temperate latitudes,
where the atmospheric cells are upwelling and release
water. Deserts and dry areas are located around zones where
the convecting cells downwell, bringing descending dry air
into these regions.
The rotation of the Earth sets up systems of prevailing
winds that modify the global convective atmospheric (and
oceanic) circulation patterns. The spinning of the Earth sets
up latitude-dependent airflow patterns, including the trade
winds and westerlies. In addition, uneven heating of the
Earth over land and ocean regions causes regional airflow
patterns such as rising air over hot continents that must be
replenished by air flowing in from the sides. The Coriolis
force is a result of the rotation of the Earth, and it causes any
moving air mass in the Northern Hemisphere to be deflected
to the right, and masses in the Southern Hemisphere to be
deflected to the left. These types of patterns tend to persist
for long periods of time and move large masses of air around
the planet, redistributing heat and moisture and regulating
the climate of any region.
Temperature is a major factor in the climate of any area,
and this is largely determined by latitude. Polar regions see
huge changes in temperature between winter and summer
months, largely a function of the wide variations in amount
of incoming solar radiation and length of days. The proximity
to large bodies of water such as oceans influences temperature,
as water heats up and cools down much slower than
land surfaces. Proximity to water therefore moderates temperature
fluctuations. Altitude also influences temperature,
with temperature decreasing with height.
Climate may change in cyclical or long-term trends, as
influenced by changes in solar radiation, orbital variations of
the Earth, amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, or
through other phenomena such as the El Niño or La Niña.
See also ATMOSPHERE; CLIMATE CHANGE; EL NIÑO;
PLATE TECTONICS.
climate change Earth’s climate changes on many different
timescales, ranging from tens of millions of years to decadal
and even shorter timescale variations. In the last 2.5 billion
years, several periods of glaciation have been identified, separated
by periods of mild climate similar to that of today.
Other periods are marked by global hothouse type conditions,
when the Earth had a very hot and wet climate,
approaching that of Venus. These dramatic climate changes
are caused by a number of different factors that exert their
influence on different timescales. One of the variables is the
amount of incoming solar radiation, and this changes in
response to several astronomical effects such as orbital tilt,
eccentricity, and wobble. Changes in the incoming solar radiation
in response to changes in orbital variations produce
cyclical variations known as Milankovitch cycles. Another
variable is the amount of heat that is retained by the atmosphere
and ocean, or the balance between the incoming and
outgoing heat. A third variable is the distribution of landmasses
on the planet. Shifting continents can influence the
patterns of ocean circulation and heat distribution, and placing
a large continent on one of the poles can cause ice to
build up on that continent, increasing the amount of heat
reflected back to space and lowering global temperatures in a
positive feedback mechanism.
Shorter term climate variations include those that operate
on periods of thousands of years, and shorter, less regular
decadal scale variations. Both of these relatively short-period
variations are of most concern to humans, and considerable
effort is being expended to understand their causes and to
estimate the consequences of the current climate changes the
planet is experiencing. Great research efforts are being
expended to understand the climate history of the last million
years and to help predict the future.
Variations in formation and circulation of ocean currents
may be traced some thousands of years to decadal scale
variations in climate. Cold water forms in the Arctic and
Weddell Seas. This cold salty water is denser than other
water in the ocean, so it sinks to the bottom and gets ponded
behind seafloor topographic ridges, periodically spilling over
into other parts of the oceans. The formation and redistribution
of North Atlantic cold bottom water accounts for about
30 percent of the solar energy budget input to the Arctic
Ocean every year. Eventually, this cold bottom water works
its way to the Indian and Pacific Oceans where it upwells,
gets heated, and returns to the North Atlantic. This cycle of
water circulation on the globe is known as thermohaline circulation.
Recent research on the thermohaline circulation
system has shown a correlation between changes in this system
and climate change. Presently, the age of bottom water
in the equatorial Pacific is 1,600 years, and in the Atlantic it
is 350 years. Glacial stages in the North Atlantic have been
correlated with the presence of older cold bottom waters,
approximately twice the age of the water today. This suggests
that the thermohaline circulation system was only half
as effective at recycling water during recent glacial stages,
with less cold bottom water being produced during the
glacial periods. These changes in production of cold bottom
water may in turn be driven by changes in the North Ameri-
80 climate change
can ice sheet, perhaps itself driven by 23,000-year orbital
(Milankovitch) cycles. It is thought that a growth in the ice
sheet would cause the polar front to shift southward,
decreasing the inflow of cold saline surface water into the
system required for efficient thermohaline circulation. Several
periods of glaciation in the past 14,500 years (known
as the Dryas) are thought to have been caused by sudden,
even catastrophic injections of glacial meltwater into the
North Atlantic, which would decrease the salinity and hence
density of the surface water. This in turn would prohibit the
surface water from sinking to the deep ocean, inducing
another glacial interval.
Shorter term decadal variations in climate in the past
million years are indicated by so-called Heinrich Events,
defined as specific intervals in the sedimentary record showing
ice-rafted debris in the North Atlantic. These periods of
exceptionally large iceberg discharges reflect decadal scale sea
surface and atmospheric cooling. They are related to thickening
of the North American ice sheet, followed by ice stream
surges, associated with the discharge of the icebergs. These
events flood the surface waters with low-salinity freshwater,
leading to a decrease in flux to the cold bottom waters, and
hence a short period global cooling.
Changes in the thermohaline circulation rigor have also
been related to other global climate changes. Droughts in the
Sahel and elsewhere are correlated with periods of ineffective
or reduced thermohaline circulation, because this reduces the
amount of water drawn into the North Atlantic, in turn cooling
surface waters and reducing the amount of evaporation.
Reduced thermohaline circulation also reduces the amount of
water that upwells in the equatorial regions, in turn decreasing
the amount of moisture transferred to the atmosphere,
reducing precipitation at high latitudes.
Atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases such as CO2 and
atmospheric temperatures show a correlation to variations in
the thermohaline circulation patterns and production of cold
bottom waters. CO2 is dissolved in warm surface water and
transported to cold surface water,which acts as a sink for the
" Coping with Sea-Level Rise in Coastal Cities
People have built villages, towns, cities, and industrial sites near
the sea for thousands of years. The coastal setting offers beauty
and convenience but also may bring disaster with coastal storms,
tsunami, and invading armies. Coastal communities are currently
experiencing the early stages of a new incursion, that of the sea
itself, as global sea levels slowly and inexorably rise.
Sea-level rises and falls by hundreds of feet over periods of
millions of years have forced the position of the coastline to move
inland and seaward by many tens of miles over long time periods.
The causes of sea-level rise and fall are complex, including
growth and melting of glaciers with global warming, changes in
the volume of the mid-ocean ridges, thermal expansion of water,
and other complex interactions of the distribution of the continental
landmass in mountains and plains during periods of orogenic
and anorogenic activity. Most people do not think that changes
over these time frames will affect their lives, but a sea-level rise
of even a foot or two, which is possible over periods of tens of
years, can cause extensive flooding, increased severity of storms,
and landward retreat of the shoreline. Sea-level rise is rapidly
becoming one of the major global hazards that the human race is
going to have to deal with in the next century, since most of the
world’s population lives near the coast in the reach of the rising
waters. Cities may become submerged and farmlands covered by
shallow, salty seas. An enormous amount of planning is needed,
as soon as possible, to begin to deal with this growing threat. The
current rate of rise of an inch or so every 10 years seems insignificant,
but it will have truly enormous consequences. When sealevel
rises, beaches try to maintain their equilibrium profile,
moving each beach element landward. A sea-level rise of one
inch is generally equated with a landward shift of beach elements
of more than four feet. Most sandy beaches worldwide are
retreating landward at rates of 20 inches–3 feet per year, consistent
with sea-level rise of an inch every 10 years. If the glacial ice
caps on Antarctica begin to melt faster, the sea-level rise will be
much more dramatic.
What effect will rising sea levels have on the world’s cities
and low-lying areas? Many of the world’s large cities, including
New York, London, Houston, Los Angeles, Washington D.C., Cairo,
Shanghai, Brussels, and Calcutta have large areas located within a
few feet of sea level. If sea levels rise a few feet, many of the
streets in these cities will be underwater, not to mention basements,
subway lines, and other underground facilities. Imagine
Venice-like conditions in New York! If sea levels rise much more,
many of the farmlands of the midwest United States, North Africa,
Mesopotamia, northern Europe, Siberia, and eastern China will be
submerged in shallow seas. These areas are not only populated but
serve as some of the most fertile farmlands in the world. Thus,
large sea-level rise will at best displace or more likely simply eliminate
the world’s best agricultural lands, necessary for sustaining
global population levels.
What can be done to prepare for sea-level rise? Some
lessons can be learned from the Netherlands, where the Dutch
have built numerous dikes to keep the sea out of low-lying areas, at
costs of billions of dollars. If the United States had to build such
barriers around the coastlines of low-lying areas, the cost would be
unbearable and would amount to one of the largest construction
projects ever undertaken. Humans are contributing to global warming,
which in turn is probably contributing to enhanced melting of
the glaciers and ice caps. Although it is too late to stop much of the
warming and melting, it may not be too late to stop the warming
before it is catastrophic and the ice caps melt, raising sea levels by
hundreds of feet. In any case, it is time that governments, planners,
and scientists begin to make more sophisticated plans for action
during times of rising sea levels.
 Gaia Hypothesis
For billions of years the Earth has maintained its temperature and
atmospheric composition in a narrow range that has permitted life
to exist on the surface. Many scientists have suggested that this
remarkable trait of the planet is a result of life adapting to conditions
that happen to exist and evolve on the planet. An alternative
idea has emerged that the planet behaves as some kind of self-regulating
organism that invokes a series of positive and negative
feedback mechanisms to maintain conditions within the narrow
window in which life can exist. In this scenario, organisms and
their environment evolve together as a single coupled system, regulating
the atmospheric chemistry and composition to the need of
the system. Dr. James Lovelock, an atmospheric chemist at Green
College in Oxford, U.K., pioneered this second idea, known as the
Gaia hypothesis. However, the idea of a living planet dates back at
least to Sir Isaac Newton.
How does the Gaia hypothesis work? The atmosphere is
chemically unstable, yet it has maintained conditions conducive to
life for billions of years even despite a 30 percent increase in solar
luminosity since the Early Precambrian. The basic tenet of the
hypothesis is that organisms, particularly microorganisms, are
able to regulate the atmospheric chemistry and hence temperature
to keep conditions suitable for their development. Although
this tenet has been widely criticized, some of the regulating mechanisms
have been found to exist, lending credence to the possibility
that Gaia may work. Biogeochemical cycles of nutrients
including iodine and sulfur have been identified, with increases in
the nutrient supply from land to ocean leading to increased biological
production and increased emissions to the atmosphere.
Increased production decreases the flux of nutrients from the
oceans to the land, in turn decreasing the nutrient supply, biological
production, and emissions to the atmosphere.
As climate warms, rainfall increases, and the weathering of
calcium-silicate rocks increases. The free calcium ions released
during weathering combine with atmospheric carbon dioxide to
produce carbonate sediments, effectively removing the greenhouse
gas carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This reduces global
temperatures in another self-regulating process. An additional
feedback mechanism was discovered between ocean algae and
climate. Ocean algae produce dimethyl sulfide gas, which oxidizes
in the atmosphere to produce nuclei for cloud condensation. The
more dimethyl sulfide that algae produce, the more clouds form,
lowering temperatures and lowering algal production of dimethyl
sulfide in a self-regulating process.
That the Earth and its organisms have maintained conditions
conducive for life for 4 billion years is clear. However, at times the
Earth has experienced global icehouse and global hothouse conditions,
where the conditions extend beyond the normal range. Lovelock
relates these brief intervals of Earth history to fevers in an
organism, and he notes that the planet has always recovered. Life
has evolved dramatically on Earth in the past 4 billion years, but this
is compatible with Gaia. Living organisms can both evolve with and
adapt to their environment, responding to changing climates by
regulating or buffering changes to keep conditions within limits that
are tolerable to life on the planet as a whole. However, there are
certainly limits, and the planet has never experienced organisms
such as humans that continually emit huge quantities of harmful
industrial gases into the atmosphere. It is possible that the planet,
or Gaia, will respond by making conditions on Earth uninhabitable
for humans, saving the other species on the planet. As time goes
on, in about a billion years the Sun will expand and eventually burn
all the water and atmosphere off the planet, making it virtually uninhabitable.
By then humans may have solved the problem of where
to move to and developed the means to move global populations to
a new planet.
CO2. During times of decreased flow from cold, high-latitude
surface water to the deep ocean reservoir, CO2 can build up
in the cold polar waters, removing it from the atmosphere
and decreasing global temperatures. In contrast, when the
thermohaline circulation is vigorous, cold oxygen-rich surface
waters downwell and dissolve buried CO2 and even carbonates,
releasing this CO2 to the atmosphere and increasing
global temperatures.
The present-day ice sheet in Antarctica grew in the Middle
Miocene, related to active thermohaline circulation that
caused prolific upwelling of warm water that put more moisture
in the atmosphere, falling as snow on the cold southern
continent. The growth of the southern ice sheet increased the
global atmospheric temperature gradients, which in turn
increased the desertification of midlatitude continental
regions. The increased temperature gradient also induced
stronger oceanic circulation, including upwelling, and
removal of CO2 from the atmosphere, lowering global temperatures,
and bringing on late Neogene glaciations.
Major volcanic eruptions inject huge amounts of dust
into the troposphere and stratosphere, where it may remain
for several years, reducing incoming solar radiation and
resulting in short-term global cooling. For instance, the eruption
of Tambora volcano in Indonesia in 1815 resulted in
global cooling and the year without a summer in Europe. The
location of the eruption is important, as equatorial eruptions
may result in global cooling, whereas high-latitude eruptions
may only cool one hemisphere.
It is clear that human activities are changing the global
climate, primarily through the introduction of greenhouse
gases such as CO2 into the atmosphere, while cutting down
tropical rain forests that act as sinks for the CO2 and put
oxygen back into the atmosphere. The time scale of observation
of these human, also called anthropogenic, changes is
short but the effect is clear, with a nearly one degree change
in global temperature measured for the past few decades. The
increase in temperature will lead to more water vapor in the
atmosphere, and since water vapor is also a greenhouse gas
this will lead to a further increase in temperature. Many computer-
based climate models are attempting to predict how
much global temperatures will rise as a consequence of our
anthropogenic influences, and what effects this temperature
rise will have on melting of the ice sheets (which could be
catastrophic), sea-level rise (perhaps tens of meters or more),
and runaway greenhouse temperature rise (which is possible).
Climate changes are difficult to measure, partly because
the instrumental and observational records go back only a
couple of hundred years in Europe. From these records, global
temperatures have risen by about one degree since 1890, most
notably in 1890–1940, and again since 1970. This variation,
however, is small compared with some of the other variations
induced by natural causes, and some scientists argue that it is
difficult to separate anthropogenic effects from the background
natural variations. Rainfall patterns have also changed
in the past 50 years, with declining rainfall totals over low latitudes
in the Northern Hemisphere, especially in the Sahel,
which has experienced major droughts and famine. However,
high-latitude precipitation has increased in the same time period.
These patterns all relate to a general warming and shifting
of the global climate zones to the north.

Big Bang Theory

 Bang Theory states that the expanding universe originated
10–20 billion years ago in a single explosive event in which
the entire universe suddenly exploded out of nothing, reaching
a pea-sized supercondensed state with a temperature of
10 billion million million degrees Celsius in one million-million-
million-million-million-millionth (10–36) of a second
after the Big Bang. Some of the fundamental parts of the
expanding universe models come from Albert Einstein, who
in 1915 proposed the General Theory of Relativity relating
how matter and energy warp space-time to produce gravity.
When Einstein applied his theory to the universe in 1917, he
discovered that gravity would cause the universe to be unstable
and collapse, so he proposed adding a cosmological constant
as a “fudge factor” to his equations. The cosmological
constant added a repulsive force to the General Theory, and
this force counterbalanced gravity enabling the universe to
continue expanding in his equations. William de Sitter further
applied Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity to predict
that the universe is expanding. In 1927, Georges
Lemaitre proposed that the universe originated in a giant
explosion of a primeval atom, an event we would now call
the Big Bang. In 1929, Edwin Hubble measured the movement
of distant galaxies and discovered that galaxies are
moving away from each other, expanding the universe as if
the universe is being propelled from a big bang. This idea of
expansion from an explosion negated the need for Einstein’s
cosmological constant, which he retracted, referring to it as
his biggest blunder. This retraction, however, would later
come back to haunt cosmologists.
Also in the 1920s, George Gamow worked with a group
of scientists and suggested that elements heavier than hydrogen,
specifically helium and lithium, could be produced in
thermonuclear reactions during the Big Bang. Later, in 1957,
Fred Hoyle, William Fowler, Geoff and Margaret Burbidge
showed how hydrogen and helium could be processed in
stars to produce heavier elements such as carbon, oxygen,
and iron, necessary for life.
The inflationary theory is a modification of the Big Bang
Theory and suggests that the universe underwent a period of
rapid expansion immediately after the Big Bang. This theory
was proposed in 1980 by Alan Guth, and it attempts to
explain the present distribution of galaxies, as well as the 3°K
cosmic background radiation discovered by Arno Penzias and
Robert Wilson in 1965. This uniformly distributed radiation
is thought to be a relict left over from the initial explosion of
the Big Bang. For many years after the discovery of the cosmic
background radiation, astronomers searched for answers
to the amount of mass in the universe and to determine how
fast the universe was expanding, and how much the gravitational
attraction of bodies in the universe was causing the
expansion to slow. A relatively high density of matter in the
universe would eventually cause it to decelerate and collapse
back upon itself, forming a “Big Crunch,” and perhaps a new
Big Bang. Cosmologists called this the closed universe model.
A low-density universe would expand forever, forming what
cosmologists called an open universe. In between these end
member models was a “flat” universe, that would expand
ever more slowly until it froze in place.
An alternative theory to the Big Bang is known as the
steady state theory, in which the universe is thought to exist
in a perpetual state with no beginning or end, with matter
continuously being created and destroyed. The steady state
theory does not adequately account for the cosmic background
radiation. For many years cosmologists argued,
almost religiously, whether the Big Bang Theory or the steady
state theory better explained the origin and fate of the universe.
More recently, with the introduction of new high-powered
instruments such as the Hubble Space telescope, the
Keck Mirror Array, and supercomputers, many cosmology
theories have seen a convergence of opinion. A new, so-called
standard model of the universe has been advanced and is currently
being refined to reflect this convergence of opinion.
In the standard model for the universe, the Big Bang
occurred 14 billion years ago and marked the beginning of
the universe. The cause and reasons for the Big Bang are not
part of the theory but are left for the fields of religion and
philosophy. Dr. William Percival of the University of Edinburgh
leads a group of standard model cosmologists, and
they calculate that the Big Bang occurred 13.89 billion years
ago, plus or minus half a billion years. Most of the matter of
the universe is proposed to reside in huge invisible clouds of
dark matter, thought to contain elementary particles left over
from the Big Bang. Galaxies and stars reside in these huge
clouds of matter and comprise a mere 4.8 percent of the matter
in the universe. The dark matter forms 22.7 percent of the
universe, leaving another 72.5 percent of the universe as nonmatter.
At the time of the proposal of the standard model,
this ambiguous dark matter had yet to be conclusively detected
or identified. In 2002 the first-ever atoms of antimatter
were captured and analyzed by scientific teams from CERN,
the European Organization for Nuclear Research.
Detailed observations of the cosmic background radiation
by space-borne platforms such as NASA’s COBE (Cosmic
Background Explorer) in 1992 revealed faint variations
and structure in the background radiation, consistent with an
inflationary expanding universe. Blotches and patterns in the
background radiation reveal areas that may have been the
seeds or spawning grounds for the origin of galaxies and
clusters. Detailed measurements of this background radiation
have revealed that the universe is best thought of as flat—
however, the lack of sufficient observable matter to have a
flat universe requires the existence of some invisible dark
matter. These observations were further expanded in 2002,
when teams working with the DASI (Degree Angular Scale
Interferometer) experiment reported directional differences
(called polarizations) in the cosmic microwave background
48 Big Bang Theory
radiation dating from 450,000 years after the Big Bang. The
astronomers were able to relate these directional differences
to forces that led to the formation of galaxies and the overall
structure of the universe today. These density differences are
quantum effects that effectively seeded the early universe with
protogalaxies during the early inflation period, and their
observation provides strong support for the standard model
for the universe.
Recent measurements have shown that the rate of expansion
of the universe seems to be increasing, which has led cosmologists
to propose the presence of a dark energy that is
presently largely unknown. This dark energy is thought to
comprise the remaining 72.5 percent of the universe, and it is
analogous to a repulsive force or antimatter. Recognition in
1998 that the universe is expanding at ever increasing rates
has toppled questions about open versus closed universe
models and has drastically changed perceptions of the fate of
the universe. Amazingly, the rate of acceleration of expansion
is remarkably consistent with Einstein’s abandoned cosmological
constant. The expansion seems to be accelerating so
fast that eventually the galaxies will be moving apart so fast,
they will not be able to see each other and the universe will
become dark. Other cosmologists argue that so little is
known of dark matter and dark energy that it is difficult to
predict how it will act in the future, and the fate of the universe
is not determinable from our present observations.
Alan Guth and coworkers have recently proposed modifications
of the inflationary universe model. They propose
that the initial inflation of the universe, in its first few
microseconds, can happen over and over again, forming an
endless chain of universes, called multiverses by Dr. Martin
Rees of Cambridge University. With these ideas, our 14-billion-
year-old universe may be just one of many, with Big
Bangs causing inflations of the perhaps infinite other universes.
According to the theories of particle physics it takes only
about one ounce of primordial starting material to inflate to
a universe like our own. The process of growing chains of
bubble-like universes through multiple Big Bangs and inflationary
events has been termed eternal inflation by Dr. Andrei
Linde of Stanford University.
Cosmologists, astronomers, and physicists are searching
for a grand unifying theory that is able to link Einstein’s General
Theory of Relativity with quantum mechanics and new
observations of our universe. One attempt at a grand unifying
theory is the string theory, in which elementary particles
are thought to be analogous to notes being played on strings
vibrating in 10- or 11-dimensional space. A newer theory
emerging is called M-theory, or Matrix theory, in which various
dimensional membranes including universes can interact
and collide, setting off Big Bangs and expansions that could
continue or alternate indefinitely.
Cosmology and the fate of theories like the Big Bang are
undergoing rapid and fundamental changes in understanding,
induced by new technologies, computing abilities, philosophy,
and from the asking of new questions about creation of
the universe. Although it is tempting to think of current theories
as complete, perhaps with a few unanswered questions,
history tells us that much can change with a few new observations,
questions, or understanding.

Dubai famous Hotal, Hospital

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Amazing Ice Sculptures in China

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How to promote my referral link .

How do I promote my referral link?
Promote your referral link on forums, blogs, comments, chat rooms, chats, facebook wall, facebook pages, groups, twitter, ptc sites, advertising websites to get link visits and earn money on every visit you sent through your link. . . . . .




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Nokia Mobile Secrit Codes

Nokia Mobile All Secrit Codes & Cheats

There are some secrit codes of Mobiles. Ye codes aam aadmi ki pohnch say dooor hain ici liye aap doston k saath share kar raha hoon . is say aap ko mobile k baray me mazeed jananay ka moka milay ga... Get these all secrit cods... Enjoy !!

* *#61# Allows you to check the number that "On No Reply" calls are diverted to

* *#62# Allows you to check the number that "Divert If Unreachable (no service)" calls are diverted to

* *#67# Allows you to check the number that "On Busy Calls" are diverted to

* *#67705646# Phone code that removes operator logo on 3310 & 3330

* *#73# Reset phone timers and game scores

* *#746025625# Displays the SIM Clock status, if your phone supports this power saving feature "SIM Clock Stop Allowed", it means you will get the best standby time possible

* *#7760# Manufactures code.

* *#7780# Restore factory settings

* *#8110# Software version for the nokia 8110

* *#92702689# Displays - 1.Serial Number, 2.Date Made, 3.Purchase Date, 4.Date of last repair (0000 for no repairs), 5.Transfer User Data. To exit this mode you need to switch your phone off then on again

* *#94870345123456789# Deactivate the PWM-Mem

* **21*number# Turn on "All Calls" diverting to the phone number entered

* **61*number# Turn on "No Reply" diverting to the phone number entered

* **67*number# Turn on "On Busy" diverting to the phone number entered

* 12345 This is the default security code press and hold # Lets you switch between lines.

To disply IMEI no.   *#06#

 To disply mobile warranty   *#92702689#

 To disply d production serial no.   *#7760#

 To disply bluetooth MAC address   *#bta0#

 To disply mobile security code   *#2640#

To verify cal waiting  *#43#

Nokia 1110, 1112, 1200, 1208, 1202, 1203 Snake game unlimited score trick. See my next tweet. 

Goto games from menu and open the game Snake Xenzia. Now goto Game type and select the Campaign now goto new game.

now again press the back button and goto game type again and select the campaign again now goto c0ntinue and see the magic.

Every time when your snakes gets longer repeat this process. Thanx 4 being with me. Enj0y

Nokia  Codes:   IMEI: *#06#    Vrsoin: *#0000#    Format: *#7370#     Warenty: *#92702689#    Rotat Screen: *#5511# *#5512# *#5513#

 Mobile Real Secuirty codes 4: nokia 12345

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